HOW TO WRITE A SCIENTIFIC PAPER
A scientific paper is a written report describing original research
results whose format has been defined by centuries of developing tradition,
editorial practice, scientific ethics and the interplay with printing and
publishing services. The result of this process is that virtually every
scientific paper has a title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods,
results and discussion.
It should, however, be noted that most publications have rules about a
paper's format: some divide papers into these or some of these sections,
others do not, and the order may be different in different publications. So
be prepared to revise your paper in to a publication's format when you are
ready to submit.
One general points to remember is the need to avoid jargon and acronyms
as much as possible. A second is the fact that some journals like papers to
be written in the active voice - i.e. "we carried out a test..." rather than
" test was carried out to..." — but that this is not always the case.
Title
A title should be the fewest possible words that accurately describe
the content of the paper. Omit all waste words such as "A study of ...",
"Investigations of ...", "Observations on ...", etc. Indexing and
abstracting services depend on the accuracy of the title, extracting from
it keywords useful in cross-referencing and computer searching.
An improperly titled paper may never reach the audience for which it
was intended, so be specific. If the study is of a particular species or
chemical, name it in the title. If the study has been limited to a
particular region or system, and the inferences it contains are similarly
limited, then name the region or system in the title.
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Keyword List
The keyword list provides the opportunity to add keywords, used by the
indexing and abstracting services, in addition to those already present in
the title. Judicious use of keywords may increase the ease with which
interested parties can locate your article.
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Abstract
A well-prepared abstract enables the reader to identify the basic
content of a document quickly and accurately, to determine its relevance
to their interests, and thus to decide whether to read the document in its
entirety. The abstract concisely states the principal objectives and scope
of the investigation where these are not obvious from the title. More
important, it concisely summarizes the results and principal conclusions.
Do not include details of the methods used unless the study is
methodological, i.e. primarily concerned with methods.
The abstract must be concise; most journals specify a length, typically
not exceeding 250 words. If you can convey the essential details of the
paper in 100 words, do not use 200. Do not repeat information contained in
the title. The abstract, together with the title, must be self-contained
as it is published separately from the paper in abstracting services such
as Biological Abstracts or Current Contents. Omit all references to the
literature and to tables or figures, and omit obscure abbreviations and
acronyms even though they may be defined in main body of the paper.
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Introduction
The introduction begins by introducing the reader to the pertinent
literature. A common mistake is to introduce authors and their areas of
study in general terms without mention of their major findings. For
example: "Parmenter (1976) and Chessman (1978) studied the diet of
Chelodina longicollis at various latitudes and Legler (1978) and Chessman
(1983) conducted a similar study on Chelodina expansa" compares poorly
with: "Within the confines of carnivory, Chelodina expansa is a selective
and specialized predator feeding upon highly motile prey such as decapod
crustaceans, aquatic bugs and small fish (Legler, 1978; Chessman, 1984),
whereas C. longicollis is reported to have a diverse and opportunistic
diet (Parmenter, 1976; Chessman, 1984)". The latter is a far more
informative lead-in to the literature, but more importantly it will enable
the reader to clearly place the current work in the context of what is
already known.
Try to introduce references so they do not interfere with the flow of
your argument: first write the text without references so that it reads
smoothly, then add in the references at the end of sentences or phrases so
they do not interrupt your flow. Note that not all journals use author's
names in references, some use numbers in the text with a list of citations
at the end of the article. Check the publication's style when you are
ready to submit your paper.
An important function of the introduction is to establish the
significance of your current work: Why was there a need to conduct the
study? Having introduced the pertinent literature and demonstrated the
need for the current study, you should state clearly the scope and
objectives.
Avoid a list of points or bullets; use prose.
The introduction can finish with the statement of objectives or, as
some people prefer, with a brief statement of the principal findings.
Either way, the reader must have an idea of where the paper is heading to
follow the development of the evidence.
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Materials and Methods
The main purpose of the 'Materials and Methods' section is to provide
enough detail for a competent worker to repeat your study and reproduce
the results. The scientific method requires that your results be
reproducible, and you must provide a basis for repetition of the study by
others.
Equipment and materials available off the shelf should be described
exactly (e.g. Licor underwater quantum sensor, Model LI 192SB) and sources
of materials should be given if there is variation in quality among
supplies. Modifications to equipment or equipment constructed specifically
for the study should be carefully described in detail. The method used to
prepare reagents, fixatives, and stains should be stated exactly, though
often reference to standard recipes in other works will suffice.
The usual order of presentation of methods is chronological. However,
related methods may need to be described together and strict chronological
order cannot always be followed. If your methods are new (i.e.
unpublished), you must provide all the detail required to repeat them.
However, if a method has been previously published, only the name of the
method and a literature reference need be given.
Be precise in describing measurements and include errors of
measurement. Ordinary statistical methods should be used without comment;
advanced or unusual methods may require a literature citation. Show your
materials and methods section to a colleague. Ask if they would have
difficulty in repeating your study.
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Results
In the results section you present your findings: display items
(figures and tables) are central in this section. Present the data,
digested and condensed, with important trends extracted and described.
Because the results comprise the new knowledge that you are contributing
to the world, it is important that your findings be clearly and simply
stated.
The results should be short and sweet. Do not say "It is clearly
evident from Fig. 1 that bird species richness increased with habitat
complexity". Say instead "Bird species richness increased with habitat
complexity (Fig. 1)".
However, don't be too concise. Readers cannot be expected to extract
important trends from the data unaided. Few will bother. Combine the use
of text, tables and figures to condense data and highlight trends. In
doing so be sure to refer to the guidelines for preparing tables and
figures below.
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Discussion
In the discussion you should discuss what principles have been
established or reinforced; hat generalizations can be drawn; how your
findings compare to the findings of others or to expectations based on
previous work; and whether there any theoretical/practical implications of
your work.
When you address these questions, it is crucial that your discussion
rests firmly on the evidence presented in the results section. Refer
briefly to your results to support your discussion statements. Do not
extend your conclusions beyond those that are directly supported by your
results.
A brief paragraph of speculation about what your results may mean in a
general sense is usually acceptable, but should not form the bulk of the
discussion. Be sure to address the objectives of the study in the
discussion and to discuss the significance of the results. Don't leave the
reader thinking "So what?". End the discussion with a short summary or
conclusion regarding the significance of the work.
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References
Whenever you draw upon information contained in another paper, you must
acknowledge the source. All references to the literature must be followed
immediately by an indication of the source of the information that is
referenced, e.g. "A drop in dissolved oxygen under similar conditions has
been demonstrated before (Norris, l986)."
If two authors are involved, include both surnames in this reference.
However if more authors are involved, you may use 'et al.l, an
abbreviation of Latin meaning 'and others'. In general you should not use
the abbreviation in the full reference at the end of the article, although
some journals permit this. If two more more articles written by the same
author in the same year are cited, most journals ask you to add suffixes
'a', 'b' etc in both the text and the reference list.
If you include in your report phrases, sentences or paragraphs repeated
verbatim from the literature, it is not sufficient to simply cite the
source. You must include the material in quotes and you must give the
number of the page from which the quote was lifted. For example: "Day
(l979: 3l) reports a result where '33.3% of the mice used in this
experiment were cured by the test drug; 33.3% of the test population were
unaffected by the drug and remained in a moribund condition; the third
mouse got away'".
A list of references ordered alphabetically by author's surname, or by
number, depending on the publication, must be provided at the end of your
paper. The reference list should contain all references cited in the text
but no more. Include with each reference details of the author, year of
publication, title of article, name of journal or book and place of
publication of books, volume and page numbers.
Formats vary from journal to journal, so when you are preparing a
scientific paper for an assignment, choose a journal in your field of
interest and follow its format for the reference list. Be consistent in
the use of journal abbreviations.
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Appendices
Appendices contain information in greater detail than can be presented
in the main body of the paper, but which may be of interest to a few
people working specifically in your field. . Only appendices referred to
in the text should be included.
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Formatting conventions
Most publications have guidelines about submission and manuscript
preparation, for online or mailed submissions. Most journals require the
manuscript to be typed with double spacing throughout and reasonable
margins. Make sure you read the guide to authors before submitting your
paper so that you can present your paper in the right format for that
publication (refer to submission of paper article in this series).
Finally — and perhaps most importantly — ALWAYS read the journal's
guide to authors before submitting a paper, and ALWAYS provide an
informative cover letter to your submission.
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Constructing Tables
DO include a caption and column headings that contain enough
information for the reader to understand the table without reference to
the text. The caption should be at the head of the table.
DO organize the table so that like elements read down, not across.
DO present the data in a table or in the text, but never present the
same data in both forms.
DO choose units of measurement so as to avoid the use of an excessive
number of digits.
DON'T include tables that are not referred to in the text.
DON'T be tempted to 'dress up' your report by presenting data in the
form of tables or figures that could easily be replaced by a sentence or
two of text. Whenever a table or columns within a table can be readily put
into words, do it.
DON'T include columns of data that contain the same value throughout.
If the value is important to the table include it in the caption or as a
footnote to the table.
DON'T use vertical lines to separate columns unless absolutely
necessary.
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Constructing Figures
DO include a legend describing the figure. It should be succinct yet
provide sufficient information for the reader to interpret the figure
without reference to the text. The legend should be below the figure.
DO provide each axis with a brief but informative title (including
units of measurement).
DON'T include figures that are not referred to in the text, usually in
the text of the results section.
DON'T be tempted to 'dress up' your report by presenting data in the
form of figures that could easily be replaced by a sentence or two of
text.
DON'T fill the entire A4 page with the graph leaving little room for
axis numeration, axis titles and the caption. The entire figure should lie
within reasonable margins (say 3 cm margin on the left side, 2 cm margins
on the top, bottom and right side of the page).
DON'T extend the axes very far beyond the range of the data. For
example, if the data range between 0 and 78, the axis should extend no
further than a value of 80.
DON'T use colour, unless absolutely necessary. It is very expensive,
and the costs are usually passed on to the author. Colour in figures may
look good in an assignment or thesis, but it means redrawing in
preparation for publication.
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